Learning

= __**Learning**__ = __**Classical Conditioning - learning by association**__ **Unconditioned stimulus** is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning **Unconditioned response** is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning **Conditioned stimulus** is a previously neutral stimulus that through repeated pairings with the UCS now causes a conditioned response **Conditioned Response** is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus **__Factors affecting classical conditioning:__** **__Stimulus Contiguity:__** The time between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and uncoditioned stimulus

__**Contingency:**__ The number of times the pairings occurs together

__**Individual learning history**__: Prior learning can hinder learning

__**Preparedness (to learn):**__ Readiness to learn certain associations

__**Principles of Classical Conditioning:**__ __**Stimules Discrimination**__ : A conditioned response does not occur to stimuli that are different to the original conditioned stimulus based on the difference of these stimulin to the conditioned stimulus

__**Stimulus Generalisation**__: A conditioned response occurs to stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus based on the similarity of these stimuli to the conditioned stimulus

__**Extinction**__: Occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus causing the conditioned response to weaken and eventually stop occuring

__**Spontaneous Recovery**__: The reappearance of a previously exthinguished conditioned response after a period of time has passed following extinction

__**Operant Conditioning - learning through consequences e.g. rewards/punishment**__ __**Reinforcement:**__ - Seeks to //increase// a desired behaviour -positive reinforcement -give a reward to increase behaviour -negative reinforcement -removal of aversive stimuli to increase behaviour

__**Punishment:**__ -Seeks to //decrease// an unwanted behaviour -give an unwanted consequence -take away something desirable

__**Factors affecting the effectiveness of operant conditioning**__ __**Order of presentation:**__ -reinforcer/ punisher should always follow the behaviour (never before)

__**Timing:**__ -reinforcers should be presented as close in time to the desired response as possible

__**Appropriateness of the reinforcer:**__ -the reinforcer must be something desirable, appropriate to the characteristics of the individual

__**Schedules of Reinforcement:**__ __**Continuous:**__ -every correct/desired response is reinforced - excellent for starting new behaviour - faster learning - less resistant to extinction

__**Partial:**__ - some but not all correct response are reinforced - more resistant to extinction

**__Observational Learning: learning by observing__** __**In children**__ : Albert Bandura and his colleagues were interested in studying adolescent aggrssion, they found that hyper-aggressive adolescents often had parents who modelled hostile attitudes. =**__Factors Affecting Effectiveness of Observational Learning__**= **__The Bobo Doll Experiment:__** Bandura and his colleagues conducted the Bobo doll experiment. The experiment saw young children between the ages of three and six years old observe an adult model act either aggressively or non-aggressively towards an inflatable clown (aka a Bobo doll). After the children had observed the behaviour of the adult model towards the doll they were placed in another room, the children with the aggressive model were told they were not allowed to play with the toys, to this they responded by being aggressive with the Bobo doll, whereas the non- aggressive group either ignored the doll or played with it nicely.
 * **__Attention:__** Learner must be paying attention to the model
 * **__Retention:__** What has been learned needs to be remembered
 * **__Reproduction:__** Learner must be able to replicate the action
 * **__Motivation:__** The learner needs to have an incentive to do the action
 * **__Reinforcement:__** A reward increases motivation to do the action

__**Phobias:**__
 * what is a phobia? ** ﻿A phobia is an intense and persistent fear of a specific object, situtation or activity. The intense fear causes the person to lead a constricted life. The anxiety is often out of proportion to the situation and the person is aware that their fear is unrational


 * examples of phobias: **
 * Alektorophobia - fear of chickens
 * Anglophobia - fear of England or English culture
 * Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia - fear of long words
 * Kynophobia - fear of rabies
 * Levophobia - fear of things to the left side of the body
 * Octophobia - fear of the figure 8
 * Papaphobia - fear of the Pope
 * Phobophobia - fear of phobias
 * Pupaphobia - fear of puppets
 * Xanthophobia - fear of the colour yellow or the word yellow

**﻿Treatments for phobias**:
 * Exposure therapy - exposed to your object/ situation of fear
 * Systematic desensitization - a hierarchy of fears is established from lowest to highest, deep relaxation is used, person is exposed to first item then relaxation technigues.

=**__ Schedules of Reinforcement __**= **__Fixed Ratio:__** E.g. reinforcement occurs after every 10 responses, workers paid for every 23 hamburgers they make, or students rewarded for every 3 half-arsed wiki edits they make, etc. This results in a rapid response, as it is known a reward will be given after so many responses.


 * __ Variable Ratio: __** A Poker machine will give money after 3 tries, then 41 tries, then 69 tries. This results in a resonably constant response rate, because probability of reinforcement is stable.


 * __ Fixed Interval: __** Regular intervals, such as every 10 minutes or every hour. This results in responses dropping after reinforcement, then effort increases just before reinforcement.


 * __ Variable Interval: __** Such as a fisherman catching a fish after 10 minutes, then after 1 hour, then in 30 minutes, then after 4 hours, etc. Response rate remains steady the entire time to get reinforcement when available.